Forty-five years ago, on December 6, 1980, Dr Ishtiaq Hussain Qureishi — then chairman of the National Language Authority (now the National Language Promotion Department) — announced the creation of a computerised Nastaleeq font for Urdu publication. Although it took another year to complete, revolutionising the Urdu publishing industry, this initiative was a crucial link in the centuries-long effort to create a Nastaleeq typeface that would soothe the eyes of Urdu readers.

THE HISTORY OF NASKH AND NASTALEEQ

Nastaleeq, developed in 14th century Iran from the fusion of Naskh and Taleeq, emerged primarily as a Persian calligraphic hand — celebrated for its graceful, hanging rhythm and flowing curves. Designed to express the aesthetic elegance of Persian poetry rather than textual efficiency, it slopes diagonally and relies on rounded, overlapping ligatures that enhance beauty but hinder mechanical regularity.

In contrast, one of the earliest Arabic scripts, rooted in the eighth century CE (second century AH), Naskh, with its balanced geometry, clear proportions and uniform line structure, offers superior readability and accuracy, making it the standard script for the Quran, technical and scholarly writings, and printed books. As explained by the art historian Sheila Blair her book Islamic Calligraphy, while Naskh served functional clarity, Nastaleeq embodied artistic refinement and calligraphic sophistication.

That’s why, even within the manuscript tradition, Nastaleeq, primarily a calligraphic style used for poetry, was not the preferred script for scholarly or technical writing — scholars consistently used Naskh for their treatises, commentaries and personal notes since the 8th century CE. Even today, in Iran, the birthplace of Nastaleeq, it remains mainly an artistic hand, while Naskh is employed for most printed materials, such as books, periodicals and newspapers.

What typeface should Urdu be printed in? The two most popular typefaces, Naskh and Nastaleeq, have competed across empires, technologies and political eras for social acceptance, culminating in a typographic legacy that still shapes how millions read Urdu today. But why did Pakistan adopt the Nastaleeq font for Urdu when Arabic and Persian chose Naskh?

In the Ottoman Empire, and later the Arab world too, Naskh has always been the typographic standard. Only in the Indian Subcontinent did Nastaleeq evolve into the standard script for general Urdu publication. As Blair demonstrates, in 16th century India, Nastaleeq was still used primarily for Persian poetry, art and imperial documents, whereas Naskh dominated in scholarly and technical writings.

Over time, however, Nastaleeq became integral to the visual identity of Urdu, symbolising its literary elegance and elite aesthetic, limiting Naskh to specific religious usage, such as for the Holy Quran and other Arabic religious literature. Since the earliest Urdu writings were primarily poetic — scholarly prose developed much later — readers already associated Urdu with the Nastaleeq form.

Colonial printing and linguistic policies further reinforced this distinct visual identity, separating Urdu typographically from both Arabic and Persian traditions. Yet, Nastaleeq’s very beauty and fluidity would later pose the greatest challenge. This challenge emerged with the establishment of the modern printing press in India, resulting in the Urdu publishing industry spending almost two centuries attempting to create a suitable Nastaleeq typeface.

Quoted by the London-based typographic academic Borna Izadpanah in his research paper ‘Simplifying Urdu’, according to a 1963 bulletin by The United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (Unesco), “Urdu is probably the only important language in the world which still fights shy of type-printing.”

The emergence of the modern printing press in the 14th century replaced the handwritten manuscript tradition with mass-produced printed books. Not only did it provide an easier, more efficient way to mass-produce books, but it also significantly impacted culture, politics and education, ushering in a new intellectual era in human history.

In the East, specifically in Arabic, Persian and related languages, this technology was yet to be accepted. In the West, it became the primary method of publication. Even the first attempts to publish Arabic books were made there in the 16th century, starting with Kitab Salat as-Sawai — an Arabic Christian devotional work on prescribed daily prayers and supplications, traditionally recited at specific hours of the day and night, which was commissioned by Pope Julius II and printed in 1514 in Fano or Venice.

In the mid-20th century, Naskh typefaces were widely used in academic and governmental presses. In Pakistan, Naskh became the preferred style for official and scholarly publications. Early editions of the Urdu Encyclopaedia of Islam, the Urdu Lughat [Dictionary], and several other major works were printed in Naskh, valued for its clarity and precision. The Urdu press became a vital arena where the transition from handwritten Nastaleeq to mechanical Naskh type was tested and popularised.

The Holy Quran was the second complete Arabic book to be published in movable type press, titled Alcoranus Arabice. It was printed in Venice by Paganino Paganini and his son in 1537-38. In May 2017, I travelled to Venice to study the only known copy of this edition, which survived its complete disposal before distribution. There’s a very interesting story behind this edition and its destruction. Due to the publisher’s ignorance of Arabic and lack of expertise in Arabic script and diacritics, this edition was completely unreadable, and the excessive number of errors led to the disposal of the printed copies.

Some sources state that Ottoman or Church authorities confiscated the copies and destroyed all printed copies. But after studying the mentioned copy, it was evident to me that the errors and mistakes were the main reason behind this decision. This edition not only raised many apologetic concerns about this new technology within religious circles but also demonstrated that much more effort is required to produce a suitable typographic design for Arabic. Eventually, in the 17th century, a Naskh-based typography was designed for Arabic publication in Europe.

Developed and refined over time, this typeface was designed with readability and accuracy in mind, while preserving the distinctive characteristics of the Naskh. The letters, dots, diacritics and punctuation were clear, and the whole text printed in this type was very easy to read. It was used for a long time in various publications, including the Quran.

Parallel to the movable-type press, lithography printing technology was being widely used for Arabic, Persian and Urdu publications. This was a flat-surface printing method that used chemically treated stone or metal plates to transfer handwritten text or hand-drawn images on to paper. Although this was a quite easy and economical publication method, it required the books and text to be handwritten by scribes, making it time-consuming and slow.

COLONIALISM, INDIA AND FONTS

In the 18th century, India was becoming an important centre for printing and publishing. The East India Company (EIC) also established a modern printing press in Calcutta, known as the Honourable Company Press, to meet its publishing needs.

This significant press made Calcutta a major hub of printing and the book trade. According to Majid Jalise, a specialist in Persianate book and print culture, in September 1770, Warren Hastings, the governor of the Presidency of Fort William (Bengal), appointed the orientalist, translator and typographer Charles Wilkins as supervisor of the press.

During his service at the press, Wilkins developed the first Sanskrit and Nastaleeq typeface. This was the first successful attempt to develop a practical Nastaleeq type for modern printing. A volume of Persian and Arabic Works of Sa’dee (1795) printed by him in the Company’s press resides in my library. Its typeface beautifully illustrates the calligraphic nature of Nastaleeq, yet still falls short of fully capturing the script.

Jalise writes, “His Nastaleeq typeface was a success at the time, gaining popularity not only in India but also in Britain.” It was the first time that Nastaleeq met the composing desk of the modern printing press. His efforts made Nastaleeq so popular that, even in Egypt,Ottoman governor Muhammad Ali Pasha commissioned a Persian calligrapher to create a Nastaleeq typeface for the Bulaq press (the Bulaq/Amiri press is a very important and old printing press in Egypt, established by Muhammad Ali Pasha) — thus, the second, short-lived Nastaleeq typeface was created there.

Initially used for Persian, Wilkins’ typeface was employed to print Urdu for the first time in A Grammar of the Hindoostanee Language (1796). Akhlaq-i-Hindi (1803) was the first complete Urdu book published with this typeface. However, Wilkins found it challenging and impractical for publications, and it was soon replaced by a Naskh type. The second edition of Akhlaq-i-Hindi (1868) was published in Naskh type at the same press. Although other printing presses in India used this Nastaleeq type for their publications, the Company’s press didn’t use it for long.

In the 19th century, Nawab Ghaziuddin Haider, King of Awadh, established a movable-type printing press in Lucknow that also used a Naskh typeface. A major investment was made, and large volumes of Haft Qulzum, a Persian dictionary by the Nawab himself, were printed in this press. However, it failed to gain popularity. Consequently, not only did they discontinue using this technology, but they also printed the remaining volumes in lithographic Nastaleeq.

Likewise, Naskh was employed at Sir Syed Ahmed Khan’s press, but his press also later switched to lithography. Different volumes of Haft Qulzum and Sir Syed Ahmed Khan’s works are preserved in my grandfather’s collection, and I personally find the Naskh versions more appealing, easier to read and more admirable.

Major practical efforts were made in the 20th century to create a Nastaleeq typeface for Urdu, beginning with Abul Kalam Azad’s al-Hilal. This weekly journal was initially published with a Turkish Naskh typeface modified for Urdu but, according to the journal itself, it failed to capture readers’ interest. This journal then employed a hybrid printing style, printing some pages in Naskh typeface and others in Nastaleeq lithography.

However, Azad was eager to promote Urdu in modern printing solutions. On the front page of al-Hilal, an announcement was published for five consecutive months starting from August 5, 1927, titled, “Is type printing suitable for Urdu publication? We have to decide now.” This announcement stated that no language can progress without modern printing solutions. As an example, it referred to Arabic, Persian and Turkish, mentioning that the special Urdu typeface used in al-Hilal was the most suitable and advanced typeface designed for this language.

Azad asked a very crucial question: “If this type [Naskh] is suitable for Arabic, Persian and Turkish, why is it not suitable for Urdu?” He also requested that the readers send their opinions to the journal’s office. Readers’ feedback was published weekly, which ultimately demonstrated the popularity of the hybrid Naskh and lithography-based Nastaleeq publication. Notably, the Nastaleeq type received the lowest votes. According to the professor, scholar, writer and poet Dr. Tariq Aziz, in his book Urdu Rasm ul Khat Aur Type, the results of this survey demonstrated that readers were becoming accustomed to reading Urdu in Naskh typeface.

The most extensive efforts to create a Nastaleeq font for Urdu were carried out in Hyderabad Deccan. In the 1890s, the manager of the Government Press (Matba’a-i-Sarkar-i-‘Aliyah) decided to create a new typography from scratch, under the supervision of a master calligrapher who could design an accurate and correct typeface. A detailed report presented in 1895 describes all the technical issues involved.

The primary challenge in creating a Nastaleeq type was the specific ligatures, which necessitated the design of 472 metal type pieces for individual letters and each unique connection. Naturally, having such a large number of types was impractical, and arranging them was an impossible task for a composer. This font couldn’t even pass the trial phase. But the efforts didn’t end here.

Mir Osman Ali Khan, after ascending to the throne of Hyderabad Deccan, reinitiated the project.

Rooh-i-Japan (1927) by Sir Ross Masood — who was, at that time, employed by the Hyderabad state — was published with the newly designed Nastaleeq typeface, but it ultimately ended with an official statement: “The government regrets that the Nastaleeq typeface has not proven to be commercially viable.” It officially brought the project in the Deccan to an end.

However, in the following years, several Naskh-based fonts were designed in Hyderabad. Tariq Aziz has provided a detailed study of these fonts in his book.

PAKISTAN BUCKS THE TREND

With the spread of movable-type printing across the Subcontinent, Naskh gained popularity because its upright, regular form was better suited to mechanical typesetting than the cursive, overlapping Nastaleeq script. Lithographic and, later, offset printing, however, continued to reproduce handwritten Nastaleeq, preserving its dominance in Urdu literary publishing. In the mid-20th century, Naskh typefaces were widely used in academic and governmental presses.

In Pakistan, Naskh became the preferred style for official and scholarly publications. Early editions of the Urdu Encyclopaedia of Islam, the Urdu Lughat [Dictionary], and several other major works were printed in Naskh, valued for its clarity and precision. The Urdu press became a vital arena where the transition from handwritten Nastaleeq to mechanical Naskh type was tested and popularised.

Dawn Urdu (which began soon after Independence, but only ran for a few years) was the first newspaper in Pakistan to experiment with Naskh, but readers remained attached to Nastaleeq. In 1959, the Nawa-i-Waqt group again tested public preference by printing parts of its newspaper in Naskh. The results were unexpected: most respondents favoured Naskh. However, surprisingly, Nastaleeq dominates the publishing industry, despite at least two major public surveys indicating that readers prefer the Naskh over Nastaleeq.

According to a detailed report published in the Sind Quarterly (1982, No. 1), in 1964, the Naskh Committee was appointed by Gen Ayub Khan, then president of Pakistan, to introduce Naskh script for Urdu. The report notes the president’s argument that adopting the Naskh script for Urdu writing and printing would advance Pakistan’s progress and national solidarity, spare children the burden of learning an extra script and — since Naskh is used across the Arab world, Iran, South Asia, Indonesia and Malaya — strengthen Pakistan’s brotherly ties with all Muslim countries.

But S. Ghulam Mustafa Shah, editor of the Sind Quarterly and former federal minister of education, highlighted the ongoing Naskh-Nastaleeq conflict, writing, “Hundreds and thousands of rupees were spent on the work of this committee and on preparation to introduce Naskh script for Urdu. Where all that has gone, nobody knows. Intrigues have destroyed Urdu and its status as a national language. Urdu has to be the property of the people of Pakistan and not of those whose mother tongue is Urdu, if it is to grow to the status of national language.”

In this, he’s referring to the replacement of Naskh by the Nastaleeq font under the partial patronage of the government, ignoring the practicality of Naskh and the efforts and finances invested in the adoption of it as a standard font for Urdu.

By the late 20th century, printing technology had advanced, and computers were now being used for composing. It was the right time to accomplish the centuries-long dream of a Nastaleeq typeface. Ahmed Mirza Jameel and Matlubul Hassan Syed, well-known Pakistani publishers, decided to combine the latest technology with the ancient art of calligraphy to create a computerised font that could preserve the beauty and precision of Nastaleeq.

After extensive research, they visited Monotype International in London, which had already been producing Naskh metal types for Urdu. With the company’s technical expertise and the designing and the calligraphic work of these two pioneers, after 16 years of continuous work, a Nastaleeq font was successfully developed and named Noori Nastaleeq — after Mirza’s father, the celebrated calligrapher Mirza Noor Ahmed. This was in 1981.

The system used over 20,000 precisely designed and handwritten ligatures, an unprecedented technical feat that allowed the font to reproduce the fluid, diagonal composition of handwritten Nastaleeq for the first time in printing history.

This monumental achievement marked the conclusion of a journey that had begun in the mid-18th century and was celebrated as a milestone in the history of Urdu printing. The writer and poet Aqeel Abbas Jafri, in his article in the Pakistan Chronicle in December 1980, mentions Dr Qureishi’s announcement of the creation of the Noori Nastaleeq font. He adds that the Government of Pakistan supported this project by waiving the import duty on the first machines.

Syed Muhammad Ali Anjum, owner of Izhar Sons Lahore and a senior publisher, informed me that the government at the time issued directives to print schoolbooks using this new font. According to him, the first book published with this font was the newly introduced subject Mutaleya-i-Pakistan’s textbook at his father’s press. Jang Lahore became the first newspaper to adopt Noori Nastaleeq, followed soon by others, allowing the font to dominate the Urdu publishing industry in a remarkably short period.

The project not only overcame the long-standing technical challenges of Nastaleeq — its overlapping ligatures, variable baselines and complex kerning — but also bridged the gap between art and technology. In 1995, through an agreement between Concept Software Pvt Ltd and Monotype International, the font was incorporated into the Windows-based program InPage, making Nastaleeq accessible to a wider audience.

Entering the 21st century, with rapid technological advancements, the Nastaleeq font has continued to evolve through numerous enhancements and refinements. Today, multiple digital versions of Nastaleeq are available across all major platforms. However, it is crucial to confront the dilemma of prioritising visual elegance over readability, especially in light of the needs of the modern era and the expectations of future generations.

Thus, the question raised by Azad, Gen Ayub, Ghulam Mustafa Shah and many others remains relevant and unresolved: “If Naskh is suitable for Arabic, Persian and Turkish, why is it not suitable for Urdu?”

The writer is an author, historian, bibliographer, numismatist and research associate. He can be reached at smn121@gmail.com. X and Instagram: @smn12

Published in Dawn, EOS, December 7th, 2025